The space shuttle Challenger exploded on January 28, 1986. The investigation into the cause of the shuttle’s crash brought NASA’s management practices into disrepute. It seemed managers were more interested in managing up, massaging messages, processes, and expanding their bureaucracy than in listening to their engineers.   Crucially, managers did not understand the true risks involved in different processes and materials the shuttle was using. Managers felt the risk of a shuttle failure was 1 in 100,000, meaning you could shoot a shuttle into the sky every day for 300 years and not expect a catastrophe. Engineers felt the risk of…